اطلاعات پایه ای در مورد عناصر گروه چهارم اصلی

Name: Carbon
Symbol: C
Atomic Number: 6
Atomic Mass: 12.0107 amu
Melting Point: 3500.0 °C (3773.15 K, 6332.0 °F)
Boiling Point: 4827.0 °C (5100.15 K, 8720.6 °F)
Number of Protons/Electrons: 6
Number of Neutrons: 6
Classification: Non-metal
Crystal Structure: Hexagonal
Density @ 293 K: 2.62 g/cm³
Color: May be black

 

 

Atomic Structure

Number of Energy Levels: 2   First Energy Level: 2 Second Energy Level: 4

 

Isotopes

Isotope	Half Life
C-11	20.3 minutes
C-12	Stable
C-13	Stable
C-14	5730.0 years
C-15	2.5 seconds

 

Facts

Date of Discovery: Known to the ancients
Discoverer: Unknown
Name Origin: From the Latin carbo (coal)
Uses: steel, filters
Obtained From: burning with insufficient oxygen

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اطلاعات پایه ای در مورد عناصر گروه پنجم اصلی

Name: Nitrogen
Symbol: N
Atomic Number: 7
Atomic Mass: 14.00674 amu
Melting Point: -209.9 °C (63.250008 K, -345.81998 °F)
Boiling Point: -195.8 °C (77.35 K, -320.44 °F)
Number of Protons/Electrons: 7
Number of Neutrons: 7
Classification: Non-metal
Crystal Structure: Hexagonal
Density @ 293 K: 1.2506 g/cm³
Color: colorless

 

 

Atomic Structure

Number of Energy Levels: 2   First Energy Level: 2 Second Energy Level: 5

 

Isotopes

Isotope	Half Life
N-13	9.97 minutes
N-14	Stable
N-15	Stable
N-16	7.13 seconds

 

Facts

Date of Discovery: 1772
Discoverer: Daniel Rutherford
Name Origin: Greek
Uses: forms most of atmosphere
Obtained From: from liquid air

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اطلاعات پایه ای در مورد عناصر گروه ششم اصلی

Name: Oxygen
Symbol: O
Atomic Number: 8
Atomic Mass: 15.9994 amu
Melting Point: -218.4 °C (54.750008 K, -361.12 °F)
Boiling Point: -183.0 °C (90.15 K, -297.4 °F)
Number of Protons/Electrons: 8
Number of Neutrons: 8
Classification: Non-metal
Crystal Structure: Cubic
Density @ 293 K: 1.429 g/cm³
Color: colorless

 

 

Atomic Structure

Number of Energy Levels: 2   First Energy Level: 2 Second Energy Level: 6

 

Isotopes

Isotope	Half Life
O-15	122.2 seconds
O-16	Stable
O-17	Stable
O-18	Stable

 

Facts

Date of Discovery: 1774
Discoverer: Joseph Priestly
Name Origin: From the Greek words oxus (acid) and gennan (generate)
Uses: supports life
Obtained From: from liquid air

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اطلاعات پایه ای در مورد عناصر گروه هفتم اصلی

Name: Fluorine
Symbol: F
Atomic Number: 9
Atomic Mass: 18.998404 amu
Melting Point: -219.62 °C (53.530006 K, -363.31598 °F)
Boiling Point: -188.14 °C (85.01 K, -306.652 °F)
Number of Protons/Electrons: 9
Number of Neutrons: 10
Classification: Halogen
Crystal Structure: Cubic
Density @ 293 K: 1.696 g/cm³
Color: Greenish

 

 

Atomic Structure

Number of Energy Levels: 2   First Energy Level: 2 Second Energy Level: 7

 

Isotopes

Isotope	Half Life
F-18	1.8 hours
F-19	Stable

 

Facts

Date of Discovery: 1886
Discoverer: Joseph Henri Moissan
Name Origin: From the Latin word fluo (flow)
Uses: Refrigerants
Obtained From: mineral fluorite

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اطلاعات پایه ای در مورد عناصر گروه هشتم اصلی

Name: Helium
Symbol: He
Atomic Number: 2
Atomic Mass: 4.002602 amu
Melting Point: -272.0 °C (1.15 K, -457.6 °F)
Boiling Point: -268.6 °C (4.549994 K, -451.48 °F)
Number of Protons/Electrons: 2
Number of Neutrons: 2
Classification: Noble Gas
Crystal Structure: Hexagonal
Density @ 293 K: 0.1785 g/cm³
Color: colorless

 

 

Atomic Structure

Number of Energy Levels: 1   First Energy Level: 2

 

Isotopes

Isotope	Half Life
He-3	Stable
He-4	Stable

 

Facts

Date of Discovery: 1895
Discoverer: Sir William Ramsay
Name Origin: From the Greek word hêlios (sun)
Uses: balloons, deep sea diving
Obtained From: natural gas deposit, air

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کل واکنش های عنصر کربن

CARBON - C

Properties of Carbon:

Nonmetal. A steady form of existence of an element of carbon (alpha-C). Are known also thermodynamic metastable forms: beta-C - diamond, (C₂)_n - carbyne, C₆₀ and C₇₀ - fullerens. Graphite - gray-black, with metal gloss, fat to the touch, soft, possesses conductivity. Chemically active (in difference from diamond and a carbyne). Reacts with hydrogen, oxygen, fluorine, sulfur, metals. Typical reducer. Reacts with water vapor, the concentrated nitric acid, oxides of metals. Receiving in the industry - pyrolysis of coal or hydrocarbons.

 

Molar mass	g/mol	12.011
Density	g/cm3	2.27
Melting point	°C	3800
Boiling point	°C	4000

 

Сhemical reactions with Carbon:

C + H2O(steam) = CO + H2 (800-1000°C).

C + 2H2SO4(conc., hot) = CO2↑ + 2SO2↑ + 2H2O.

C + 4HNO3(conc., hot) = CO2↑ + 4NO2↑ + 2H2O.

C + 2H2 = CH4 (600°C, pressure, catalyst - Pt).

2C + H2 = C2H2 (1500-2000°C).

C + O2 = CO2 (600-700°C, burning on air).

2C + O2 = 2CO (over 1000°C).

C+ 2F2 = CF4 (over 900°C).

C + 2S = CS2 (700-800°C).

2C + N2 = C2N2 (on electric discharge).

2C + H2 + N2 = 2HCN (over 1800°C).

C + Si = SiC (1200-1300°C).

2C + Ca = CaC2 (550°C).

C + 2PbO = 2Pb + CO2 (600°C).

2C + Na2SO4 = Na2S + 2CO2 (600°C).

2C + Na2CO3 = 2Na + 3CO (900-1000°C).

3C + 8H2SO4(conc.) + 2K2Cr2O7(conc.) = 3CO2↑ + 2Cr2(SO4)3 + 2K2SO4 + 8H2O.

C → (HNO3 + H2SO4 + KClO3(KMnO4)) → C_nO(graphite oxide) n=2-2.75.

2C + nF2 = 2CF_n(graphite fluoride) n <1.12, 450°C.

8C + F2 = 2(C₄⁺)(F^-) (in the atm. HF).

(8+x)C + M = MC(8+x) (M = K, Rb, Cs; until 150°C).

C(diamond) → Time → C(graphite) (over 1200°C).

(C₂)_n(carbyne) → Time → 2nC(graphite) (2300°C).

کل واکنش های عنصر سیلسیم

SILICON - Si - [silicium]

Properties of Silicon:

Nonmetal. Large crystals - dark gray, with metal gloss, very firm, very fragile, opaque, the semiconductor at the room temperature. Amorphous in the form of very small crystals - white (without impurity) or brown (with impurity). Melts with reduction of volume. It is steady on air (formation of a protective oxidic film). In a crystal form - small reactionary ability. Doesn't react with water, acids (including also fluoric acid), hydrogen.

In an amorphous form - more active. Reacts with the concentrated fluoric acid, alkalis (it is partially transferred to solution even in the alkalescent environment), absorbs significant amounts of various gases (including hydrogen). Is oxidized by oxygen and halogens. Reacts with hydrogen halides, ammonia, hydrogen sulfide, metals sulfides by heating. It is extremely active in the melted state, reacts with alkalis, alkaline earth metals and other metals. Alloyed (but doesn't react) with beryllium, aluminum, gallium, indium, tin, antimony, zinc, silver, gold. An alloy with iron - ferrosilicium (12-90% of Si) is industrially important. The second for prevalence (after oxygen) an element in Earth lithosphere.

 

Molar mass	g/mol	28.086
Density	g/cm3	2.33
Melting point	°C	1415
Boiling point	°C	3250

 

Methods for the preparation of Silicon:

SiH4 = Si + 2H2 (400-1000°C).

SiO2 + 2Mg = 2MgO + Si (800-900°C, in atm. of argon).

SiO2 →(air, Mg, -MgO, -Mg3N2) → Si, Mg2Si (700-900°C).

SiO2 + 5C(coke) + CaO = Si + CaC2 + 3CO (800-1000°C).

SiCl4 + 2H2 = Si + 4HCl (800°C).

SiCl4 + Li[AlH4] = Si + LiCl + AlCl3 + 2H2 (over 450°C).

SiCl4 + 4M = Si(amorphous) + 4MCl (M = Na, K; 600-700°C).

3Na2[SiF6] + 4Al = 3Si + 2Na3[AlF6] + 2AlF3 (700°C).

Na2[SiF6] → Electrolysis → Si↓(on cathode) + 2F2↑(on anode) + 2NaF (in the liquid NaF).

 

Сhemical reactions with Silicon:

Si(amorphous) + 2H2O(steam) = SiO2 + 2H2 (400-500°C).

Si(amorphous) + 4NaOH(conc.) = Na4SiO4 + 2H2↑.

Si(amorphous) + 6HF(conc.) = H2[SiF6] + 2H2↑.

Si + 4HF(gas) = SiF4 + 2H2 (40-100°C).

3Si + 18HF(conc.) + 4HNO3(conc.) = 3H2[SiF6] + 4NO↑ + 8H2O.

3Si + 18HF(conc.) + 2KClO3 = 3H2[SiF6] + 2KCl + 6H2O.

Si + 6HF(conc.) + KNO3 = H2[SiF6] + 2KNO2 + 2H2O.

Si + O2 = SiO2 (1200-1300°C).

Si + 2F2 = SiF4 (normal temp., burning in the fluorine).

Si + 2Cl2 = SiCl4 (340-420°C, under argon).

Si + 2Br2 = SiBr4 (620-700°C, under argon).

Si + 2I2 = SiI4 (750-810°C, under argon).

Si + 4HI = SiI4 + 2H2 (400-500°C).

Si + S = SiS (650-700°C, pressure).

Si + 2S = SiS2 (250-600°C).

Si + 2E = SiE2(800°C, E = Se, Te; under argon).

3Si + 2N2 = Si3N4 (1200-1500°C).

Si + C(graphite) = SiC (1200-1300°C).

Si + M = MSi (by alloying, M = Na, K, Rb, Cs).

Si + 2M = M2Si (by alloying, M = Mg, Ca).

Si + M = MSi, MSi2 (by alloying, M = Ca, Sr, Ba).

2Si + M = MSi2 (by alloying, M = La, Th, Ti, Cr, Mo, Mn, Fe).

3Si + 4NH3 = Si3N4 + 6H2 (1300-1500°C).

Si + 2H2S = SiS2 + 2H2 (1200-1300°C).

کل واکنش های عنصر ژرمانیم

GERMANIUM - Ge

Light gray, fragile, solid metal. In damp air becomes covered by an oxidic film. Possesses small reactionary ability. Doesn't react with water, diluted acids, alkalis, hydrate of ammonia. Reacts with concentrated sulfuric and nitric acids. Brought into solution by hydrogen peroxide in the presence of alkalis. Reacts with oxygen, halogens, chalcogens, ammonia, hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen sulfide.

 

Molar mass	g/mol	72.610
Density	g/cm3	5.350
Melting point	°C	937
Boiling point	°C	2850

 

Methods for the preparation of Germanium:

GeH4 = Ge + 2H2 (220-350°C).

GeO2 + 2H2 = Ge + 2H2O (600-650°C).

GeO2 + C(coke) = Ge + CO2 (500-600°C, in the atm. of hydrogen).

GeCl4 + 2H2 = Ge + 4HCl (700°C).

 

Сhemical reactions with Germanium:

Ge + 4H2SO4(conc.) = Ge(SO4)2 + 2SO2↑ + 4H2O.

Ge + 4HNO3(conc.) = GeO2↓ + 4NO2↑ + 2H2O (time).

3Ge + 4HNO3(conc.) + 12HCl(conc.) = 3GeCl4↓(liquid) + 4NO↑ + 8H2O.

Ge + 2NaOH(diluted) + 2H2O2 = Na2GeO3 + 3H2O.

Ge + 2NaOH(conc.) + 2H2O2 = Na2[Ge(OH)6].

Ge + 4H⁰(Mg, diluted H2SO4) = GeH4↑ (impurities of Ge_nH_2n+2, n>1).

Ge + O2 = GeO2 (over 700°C).

Ge + 2F2 = GeF4 (100°C, burning in the fluorine).

Ge + 2E2 = GeE4 (150-200°C, E = Cl; 350°C, E = Br; 560°C, E = I).

Ge + 2S = GeS (600-860°C).

Ge + S = GeS (over 1000°C).

Ge + E = GeE (600-700°C, E = Se, Te).

Ge + 2HF(liquid) = GeF2 + H2↑ (200°C, pressure).

Ge + H2S = GeS + H2 (600-800°C).

3Ge + 4NH3 = Ge3N4 + 6H2 (650-700°C).

Ge + CO2 = GeO + CO (700-900°C).

3Ge + 2SO2 = 2GeO2 + GeS2 (over 500°C).

کل واکنش های عنصر قلع

TIN - Sn - [stannum]

Silver-white, very soft metal, viscous at the room temperature (beta modification). At a temperature below + 13,2°C it is scattered in gray powder (an alpha modification). Low-melting, high-boiling. Doesn't react with water, hydrate of ammonia. Shows amphoteric properties. Reacts with acids and concentrated alkalis. Is oxidized by halogens, oxygen, chalcogens.

 

Molar mass	g/mol	118.710
Density	g/cm3	5.75(alpha),7.31(beta)
Melting point	°C	231.9681
Boiling point	°C	2620

 

Methods for the preparation of Tin:

2SnO = SnO2 + Sn(liquid) (400°C).

2Na[Sn(OH)3](solution) = Sn↓ + Na2[Sn(OH)6] (normal temp.) .

2SnSO4 + 2H2O → Electrolysis → 2Sn↓(on cathode) + O2↑(on anode) + 2H2SO4.

SnCl2 + M = MCl2 + Sn (200-300°C, M = Mg, Zn).

3SnCl2 + 2Al = 2AlCl3 + 3Sn (250-300°C).

SnCl2(melt) → Electrolysis → Sn↓(on cathode) + Cl2↑(on anode).

 

Сhemical reactions with Tin:

Sn + 3HCl(conc.) = H[SnCl3] + H2↑ (time).

Sn + 2HCl(gas) = SnCl2 + H2 (150-250°C).

Sn + 2H2SO4(conc.) = SnSO4 + SO2↑ + 2H2O (time, impurity Sn(SO4)2).

Sn + 4HNO3(conc.) = SnO2↓ + 4NO2↑ + 2H2O (boiling).

5Sn + 12HNO3(diluted) = 5Sn(NO3)2 + N2↑ + 6H2O (time, impurity NO).

Sn + 10HNO3(high diluted) = 4Sn(NO3)2 + NH4NO3 + 3H2O (time).

Sn + NaOH(conc. cold) + 2H2O = Na[Sn(OH)3] + H2↑ (time).

Sn + 2NaOH(conc.) + 4H2O = Na2[Sn(OH)6] + 2H2↑ (boiling).

3Sn + 4HNO3(conc.) + 18HCl(conc.) = 3H2[SnCl6] + 4NO↑ + 8H2O.

Sn + O2 = SnO2 (200°C, burning on air).

Sn + 2E2 = SnE4 (until 100°C, E = F; normal temp., E = Cl, Br).

Sn + I2 = SnI2 (boiling in the diluted HCl).

Sn + 2I2 = SnI4 (boiling in the liquid CCl4).

Sn + E = SnE (900°C, E = S, Se, Te).

Sn + 2S = SnS2 (430-440°C, in the presence of NH4Cl).

Sn(powder) + CuSO4(solution) = SnSO4 + Cu↓ (in the diluted H2SO4).

کل واکنش های عنصر سرب

LEAD - Pb - [plumbum]

Gray with a bluish shade, heavy, very soft, malleable, plastic metal. Low-melting, on air becomes covered by a steady oxidic film. Possesses small reactionary ability. It is passivated in water, hydrochloric acid, the diluted sulfuric acid, the concentrated nitric acid. Doesn't react with hydrate of ammonia. Weak reducer. Transferred to solution by the concentrated sulfuric acid, diluted nitric acid. Is oxidized by oxygen, halogens, chalcogens.

 

Molar mass	g/mol	207.2
Density	g/cm3	11.337
Melting point	°C	327.502
Boiling point	°C	1745

 

Methods for the preparation of Lead:

Pb(NO3)2 + Zn = Pb↓ + Zn(NO3)2.

Pb(NO3)2 + 2H2O → Electrolysis → Pb↓(on cathode) + O2↑(on anode) + 2HNO3.

PbSO4(damp) + Zn(plate) = Pb↓(sponge) + ZnSO4.

PbCl2 + H2 = Pb + 2HCl (300-350°C).

PbS + H2 = Pb + H2S (400-600°C).

PbS + 2PbO = 3Pb + SO2 (800-900°C).

 

Сhemical reactions with Lead:

Pb + 3H2SO4(conc.>80%) = Pb(HSO4)2 + SO2↑ + 2H2O (30-50°C).

Pb + 2H2SO4(conc.) = PbSO4↓ + SO2↑ + 2H2O (boiling).

3Pb + 8HNO3(diluted, hot) = 3Pb(NO3)2 + 2NO↑ + 4H2O.

Pb + 2NaOH(conc.) + 2H2O = Na2[Pb(OH)4] + H2↑.

2Pb + O2 = 2PbO (over 600°C).

3Pb + 2O2 = (Pb₂^IIPb^IV)O₄ (400-500°C).

Pb + E2 = PbE2 (200-300°C, E = F, Cl, Br, I).

Pb + 2F2 = PbF4 (400-500°C).

Pb + 2HF = PbF2 + H2 (160°C).

Pb + E = PbE (800-1200°C, E = S, Se, Te).

2Pb(powder) + 2H2O + O2 = 2Pb(OH)2↓ (time).

2Pb + H2O + O2 + CO2 = Pb2CO3(OH)2↓ (time).

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معرفی عناصر گروه 3

Introduction group IIIa

Group 3a will include the following elements: boron B, aluminium Al, gallium Ga, indium In and thallium Tl.

Boron is a unique and exciting element. Over the years it has proved a constant challenge and stimulus not only to preparative chemists and theoreticians, but also to industrial chemists and technologists. It is the only non-metal in Group 3a of the periodic table and shows many similarities to its nelghbour, carbon, and its diagonal relative, silicon. Thus, like carbon and silicon, it shows a marked propensity to form covalent, molecular compounds, but it differs sharply from them in having one less valence electron than the number of valence orbitals, a situation sometimes referred to as "electron deficiency". This has a dominant effect on its chemistry. Borax was known in the ancient world where it was used to prepare glazes and hard (borosilicate) glasses. Sporadic investigations during the eighteenlh century led ultimately to the isolalion of very impure boron by H. Davy and by J. L. Gay Lussac and L. J. Thenard in 1808, but it was not until 1892 that H. Moissan obtained samples of 95-98% purity by reducing B2O3 with Mg.

Aluminium derives its name from alum, the double sulfate KAl(SO4)2-12H20, which was used medicinally as an astringent in ancient Greece and Rome . Humphry Davy was unable to isolate the metal but proposed the name "alumium" and then "aluminum"; this was soon modified to aluminium and this form is used throughout the world except in North America where the ACS decided in 1925 to adopt "aluminum" in its publications. The impure metal was first isolated by the Danish scientist H. C. Oersted using the reaction of dilute potassium amalgam on AlCl3. This method was improved in 1827 by H. Wohler who used metallic potassium, but the first commercially successful process was devised by H. St.C. Deville in 1854 using sodium. In the same year both he and R. W. Bunsen independently obtained metallic aluminium by electrolysis of fused NaAlCl4.

Gallium was predicted as eka-aluminium by D. I. Mendeleev in 1870 and was discovered by P. E. Lecoq de Boisbaudran in 1875 by means of the spectroscope; de Boisbaudran was, in fact, guided at the time by an independent theory of his own and had been searching for the missing element for some years. The first indications came with the observation of two new violet lines in the spark spectrum of a sample deposited on zinc, and within a month he had isolated 1 g of the metal starting from several hundred kilograms of crude zinc blende ore. The element was named in honour of France (Latin Gallia) and the striking similarity of its physical and chemical properties to those predicted by Mendeleev did much to establish the general acceptance of the Periodic Law; indeed, when de Boisbaudran first stated that the density of Ga was 4.7g/cm3 rather than the predicted 5.9g/cm3, Mendeleev wrote to him suggesting that he redetermine the figure (the correct value is 5.904 g/cm3).

Indium and thallium were also discovered by means of the spectroscope as their names indicate. Indium was first identified in 1863 by F. Reich and H.T. Richter and named from the brilliant indigo blue line in its flame spectrum (Latin indicum). Thallium was discovered independently by W. Crookes and by C. A. Lamy in the preceding year 1861-1862 and named after the characteristic bright green line in its flame spectrum.

کل واکنش های عنصر بور

BORON - B

Properties of Boron:

Nonmetal. Gray-black (crystal) or brown (amorphous). Refractory, very hard, brittle. Chemically passive. Does not react with hydrogen, water, diluted acids, diluted alkalis into the solution. Reacts with water steam, concentrated nitric acid, halogen, nitrogen, hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen sulfide, ammonia and alkalis when heated.

 

Molar mass	g/mol	10.811
Density	g/cm3	2.340
Melting point	°C	2075
Boiling point	°C	3700

 

Methods for the preparation of Boron:

B2H6 = 2B + 3H2 (300-500°C)

B2O3 + 2Al = Al2O3 + 2B (800-900°C)

2BCl3 + 3H2 = 2B + 6HCl (800-1200°C)

2BI3 = 2B + 3I2 (over 700°C or on light)

 

Сhemical reactions with Boron:

2B + 3H2O(steam) = B2O3 + 3H2 (700-800°C).

B + 3HNO3(hot, conc.) = B(OH)3↓ + 3NO2↑.

2B(amorphous) + 2NaOH(conc.) + 6H2O = 2Na[B(OH)4] + 3H2↑.

4B + 4NaOH + 3O2 = 4NaBO2 + 2H2O (350-400°C).

4B + 3O2 = 2B2O3 (700°C, burning on air).

2E + 3E2 = 2BE3 (30°C, E = F; over 400°C E = Cl, Br, I).

2B + 3S = B2S3 (over 600°C).

2B + N2 = 2BN (900-1000°C).

B + P(red) = BP (900-1200°C).

4B + C(graphite) = B4C (over 2000°C, impurity B13C2).

2B + 6HE = BE3 + 3H2 (400-500°C; E = F, Cl).

2B + H2S = B2S3 + 3H2 (800-900°C).

2B + 2NH3 = 2BN + 3H2 (1000-1200°C).

5B + 3NO = B2O3 + 3BN (800°C).

2B + 3CO = B2O3 + 3C(graphite) (1400°C).

4B + 3CS2 = 2B2S3 + 3C(graphite) (930°C).

4B + 3SiO2 = 2B2O3 + 3Si (1300-1500°C).

کل واکنش های عنصر آلومینیوم

ALUMINUM - Al

Properties of Aluminum:

White light plastic metal. Passivated in water, in the concentrated nitric acid and in solution of a potassium bichromate because of formation of a steady oxidic film. The amalgamated metal reacts with water. The strong reducer, high reactivity. Shows amphoteric properties, reacts with diluted acids and alkalis.

 

Molar mass	g/mol	26.982
Density	g/cm3	2.702
Melting point	°C	660.37
Boiling point	°C	2500

 

Methods for the preparation of Aluminum:

2Al2O3→Electrolysis(in melt of Na3[AlF6])→4Al(cathode)+3O2(anode)↑ (900°C).

2AlCl3(liquid) → Electrolysis → 2Al(on cathode) + 3Cl2(on anode)↑.

 

Сhemical reactions with metal Aluminum:

2(Al, Hg) + 6H2O = 2Al(OH)3↓ + 3H2↑ + 2Hg↓ (amalgam, normal temp.)

2Al + 6HCl(diluted) = 2AlCl3 + 3H2↑.

8Al + 30HNO3(diluted) = 8Al(NO3)3 + 3NO2 + 15H2O.

8Al + 30HNO3(high diluted) = 8Al(NO3)3 + 3NH4NO3 + 9H2O.

2Al + 2(NaOH·H2O) = 2NaAlO2 + 3H2O (400-500°C).

2Al + 2NaOH(conc.) + 6H2O(hot) = 2Na[Al(OH)4] + 3H2↑.

8Al + 18H2O + 3KNO3 + 5KOH = 8K[Al(OH)4] + NH3↑ (boiling).

4Al(powder) + 3O2 = 2Al2O3 (burning on air).

2Al + 3F2 = 2AlF3 (600°C).

2Al(powder) + 3E2 = 2AlE3 (25°C; E = Cl, Br).

2Al(powder) + 3I2 = 2AlI3 (25°C; catalyst - water drop).

2Al + 3S = Al2S3 (150-200°C).

2Al(powder) + N2 = 2AlN (800-1200°C).

4Al + P₄ = 4AlP (500-800°C, in the atm. H2).

4Al + 3C(graphite) = Al4C3 (1500-1700°C).

2Al + 6HF(gas) = 2AlF3 + 3H2 (450-500°C).

2Al + 3H2S = Al2S3 + 3H2 (600-1000°C).

2Al + 2NH3 = 2AlN + 3H2 (over 600°C).

8Al + 3(Fe^IIFe^III₂)O₄ = 4Al2O3 + 9Fe (over 2000°C).

کل واکنش های عنصر گالیم

GALLIUM - Ga

Properties of Gallium:

Silver-white with a bluish shade, fusible, very soft, plastic metal. In solid and liquid states is formed by molecules of Ga₂, gas - monatomic. It is passivated in cold water (is formed steady oxidic film). Strong reducer. Reacts with hot water, strong acids, alkalis, hydrate of ammonia, nonmetals.

 

Molar mass	g/mol	69.723
Density	g/cm3	5.904
Melting point	°C	29.78
Boiling point	°C	2403

 

Methods for the preparation of Gallium:

Ga2O3 + 3H2 = 2Ga + 3H2O (700°C).

2GaCl3(melt) → Electrolysis → 2Ga↓(on cathode) + 3Cl2↑(on anode).

 

Сhemical reactions with Gallium:

2Ga + 6H2O(hot) = 2Ga(OH)3↓ + 3H2↑.

2Ga + 4H2O(steam) = 2GaO(OH) + 3H2 (350°C).

2Ga + 6HCl(diluted) = 2GaCl3 + 3H2↑.

Ga + 6HNO3(conc.) = Ga(NO3)3 + 3NO2↑ + 3H2O.

2Ga + 2NaOH(conc., hot) + 6H2O = 2Na[Ga(OH)4] + 3H2↑.

2Ga + 2(NH3·H2O)(conc., hot) + 6H2O = 2NH4[Ga(OH)4] + 3H2↑.

2Ga + 2Na2CO3(conc.) + 8H2O = 2Na[Ga(OH)4] + 3H2↑ + 2NaHCO3.

2Ga + O2 = 2GaO (burning on air).

2Ga + 3Cl2 = 2GaCl3 (80-200°C).

2Ga + 3S = Ga2S3 (800°C).

2Ga + 3H2S = Ga2S3 + 3H2 (250-350°C).

2Ga + 2NH3 = 2GaN + 3H2 (1050-1200°C).

کل واکنش های عنصر ایندیم

INDIUM - In

Properties of Indium:

Silver-white, very soft, plastic, fusible metal. Doesn't change in damp air. Doesn't react with water, alkalis, hydrate of ammonia. Reducer. Is oxidized by acids, oxygen, and other nonmetals.

 

Molar mass	g/mol	114.82
Density	g/cm3	7.30
Melting point	°C	156.634
Boiling point	°C	2024

 

Methods for the preparation of Indium:

In2O3 + 3H2 = 2In + 3H2O (700°C).

In2O3 + 3C(graphite) = 2In + 3CO (800-900°C).

2In2(SO4)3 + 6H2O → Electrolysis → 4In↓(on cathode) + 3O2↑(on anode) + 6H2SO4.

 

Сhemical reactions with Indium:

2In + 6HCl(diluted) = 2InCl3 + 3H2↑.

In + 2HCl(gas) = InCl2(gas) + H2 (700-970°C).

In + 4HNO3(diluted, hot) = In(NO3)3 + NO↑ + 2H2O.

4In + 3O2 = 2In2O3 (800°C, burning on air).

2In + 3Cl2 = 2InCl3 (120-150°C).

2In + 3S = In2S3 (1050-1100°C).

2In + CO2 = In2O + CO (850°C).

2In + H2S = In2S + H2 (700-800°C).

کل واکنش های عنصر تالیم

THALLIUM - Tl

Properties of Thallium:

Silver-white metal, plastic, very soft, fusible. On air becomes covered by an oxidic film. In a compact form doesn't react with water, hydrochloric acid, alkalis, hydrate of ammonia. Is oxidized by sulfuric and nitric acids, hydrogen peroxide, and chlorine.

 

Molar mass	g/mol	204.383
Density	g/cm3	11.84
Melting point	°C	303.6
Boiling point	°C	1457

 

Methods for the preparation of Thallium:

Tl2O(solid) = Tl2O(gas) &harr Tl + O2 (over 1300°C).

Tl2O + H2 = 2Tl + H2O (over 500°C).

Tl2O + CO = 2Tl + CO2 (250-325°C).

2Tl2SO4 + 2H2O → Electrolysis → 4Tl↓(on cathode) + O2↑(on anode) + 2H2SO4.

2TlCl + H2 = 2Tl + 2HCl (650-750°C).

 

Сhemical reactions with Thallium:

2Tl + H2SO4(diluted, cold) = Tl2SO4 + H2↑.

3Tl + 4HNO3(diluted, hot) = 3TlNO3 + NO↑ + 2H2O.

Tl + 6HNO3(conc., hot) = Tl(NO3)3 + 3NO2↑ + 3H2O.

4Tl + 2O2 = Tl2O + Tl2O3 (400°C, burning on air).

4Tl + 2H2O = + O2 = 4TlOH (50-70°C).

2Tl + 3H2O2(conc.) = Tl2O3↓ + 3H2O.

2Tl + Cl2 = 2TlCl (normal temp.).

2Tl + 2HCl(conc.) + 3Cl2 = 2H[TlCl4].

2Tl + S = Tl2S (320°C, in the atm. of hydrogen).

2Tl + 3S = Tl2S3 (200-250°C).

معرفی عناصر گروه 2

Introduction group IIa

The Group 2a (beryllium Be, magnesium Mg, calcium Ca, strontium Sr, barium Ba, radium Ra) or alkaline earth metals exemplify and continue the trends in properties noted for the alkali metals.

The discovery of beryllium in 1798 followed an unusual train of events. The mineralogist R.-J. Haily had observed the remarkable similarity in external crystalline structure, hardness and density of a beryl from Limoges and an emerald from Peru, and suggested to L.N. Vauquelin that he should analyse them to see if they were chemically identical. As a result, Vauquelin showed that both minerals contained not only alumina and silica as had previously been known, but also a new earth, beryllia, which closely resembled alumina but gave no alums, apparently did not dissolve in an excess of KOH and had a sweet rather than an astringent taste. Caution: beryllium compounds are now known to be extremely toxic, especially as dusts or smokes; it seems likely that this toxicity results from the ability of Be to displace Mg from Mg-activated enzymes due to its stronger coordinating ability.

Both beryl and emerald were found to be essentially Be3Al2Si6O18, the only difference between them being that emerald also contains about 2% Cr, the source of its green color. The combining weight of Be was 4.7 but the similarity between Be and Al led to considerable confusion concerning the valency and atomic weight of Be (2 x 4.7 or 3 x 4.7); this was not resolved until Mendeleev 70 years later stated that there was no room for a tervalent element of atomic weight 14 near nitrogen in his periodic table, but that a divalent element of atomic weight 9 would fit snugly between Li and B. Beryllium metal was first prepared by F. Wishler in 1828 (the year he carried out his celebrated synthesis of urea from NH4CNO); he suggested the name by allusion to the mineral. The metal was independently isolated in the same year by A.B. Bussy using the same method  reduction of BeCl2 with metallic K. The first electrolytic preparation was by P. Lebeau in 1898 and the first commercial process (electrolysis of a fused mixture of BeF2 and BaF2) was devised by A. Stock and H. Goldschmidt in 1932.

Compounds of Mg and Ca, like those of their Group 1a neighbours Na and K, have been known from ancient times though nothing was known of their chemical nature until the seventeenth century. Magnesian stone was the name given to the soft white mineral steatite (otherwise called soapstone or talc) which was found in the Magnesia district of Thessally, whereas calcium derives from the Latin calx, calcis - lime. The Romans used a mortar prepared from sand and lime (obtained by heating limestone, CaCO3) because these lime mortars withstood the moist climate of Italy better than the Egyptian mortars based on partly dehydrated gypsum (CaSO4 - 2H20); these had been used, for example, in the Great Pyramid of Gizeh. The names of the elements themselves were coined by H. Davy in 1808 when he isolated Mg and Ca, along with Sr and Ba by an electrolytic method following work by J. J. Berzelius and M. M. Pontin: the moist earth (oxide) was mixed with one-third its weight of HgO on a platinum plate which served as anode; the cathode was a platinum wire dipping into a pool of mercury and electrolysis gave an amalgam from which the desired metal could be isolated by distilling off the mercury.

A mineral found in a lead mine near Strontian, Scotland, in 1787 was shown to be a compound of a new element by A. Crawford in 1790. This was confirmed by T. C. Hope the following year and he clearly distinguished the compounds of Ba, Sr and Ca, using amongst other things their characteristic flame colorations: Ba yellow-green, Sr bright red, Ca orange-red. Barium-containing minerals had been known since the seventeenth century but the complex process of unravelling the relation between them was not accomplished until the independent work of C. W. Scheele and J. G. Gahn between 1774 and 1779: heavy spar was found to be BaSO4 and called barite or barytes, whence Scheele's new base baryta (BaO) from which Davy isolated barium in 1808.

Radium, the last element in the group, was isolated in trace amounts as the chloride by Pierre and Marie Curie in 1898 after their historic processing of tonnes of pitchblende. It was named by Mariee Curie in allusion to its radioactivity; the element itself was isolated electrolytically via an amalgam by M. Curie and A. Debierne in 1910 and its compounds give a carmine-red flame test.

کل واکنشهای عنصر برلیم

BERYLLIUM Be

Light gray, floaty, fairly hard, brittle metal. On the air is covered by an oxide film. Passivated in cold water, concentrated sulfuric and nitric acids. Reducing agent. Reacts with boiling water, dilute acids, concentrated alkalis, non-metals, ammonia, metal oxides.

 

Obtaining metallic beryllium Be:

BeO + Mg = MgO + Be (700–800°C).

BeF2 + Mg = Be + MgF2 (700–750°C).

BeF2(liquid) → (Electrolysis) Be↓(cathode) + F2↑(anode).

BeCl2(liquid) → (Electrolysis) Be↓(cathode) + Cl2↑(anode).

 

Сhemical reactions with metallic beryllium Be:

2 Be + 3 H2O = BeO↓ +Be(OH)2↓ + 2 H2↑ (boiling).

Be + 2 HCl(diluted) = BeCl2 + H2↑.

3 Be + 8 HNO3(diluted, hot) = 3 Be(NO3)2 + 2 NO↑ + 4 H2O.

Be + 2 NaOH(conc.) + 2 H2O = Na2[Be(OH)4] + H2↑.

Be + 2 NaOH = Na2BeO2 + H2 (400–500°C).

2 Be + O2 = 2BeO (900°C, combustion on air).

Be + E2 = BeE2 (normal temp., E = F; 250°C, E = Cl; 480°C, E = Br, I).

Be + S = BeS (1150°C).

3 Be + N2 = Be3N2 (700–900°C),

2 Be + C(graphite) = Be2C (1700-1900°C, vacuum).

Be + 4 HF(conc.) = H2[BeF4] +H2↑.

3 Be + 2 NH3 = Be3N2 + 3 H2 (500–700° C).

Be + C2H2 = BeC2 + H2 (400–450°C).

Be + MgO = BeO + Mg (1075°C).

کل واکنشهای عنصر منگنز

MAGNESIUM - Mg

Properties of Magnesium:

The silver-white, relatively soft, ductile, malleable metal. On air covered with an oxide film. Passivated in cold water, concentrated sulfuric acid and hydrofluoric acid. Does not react with alkalis. A strong reducing agent, reacts with hot water, diluted acids, nonmetals. Transferred to solution by ammonium salts.

 

 

Molar mass	g/mol	24.305
Density	g/cm3	1.737
Melting point	°C	648
Boiling point	°C	1095

 

 

Methods for the preparation of Magnesium:

MgO + C(coke) = Mg + CO (over 2000°C).

MgO + Ca = CaO + Mg (1300°C).

Mg3N2 = 3Mg + N2 ( 700-1500°C).

MgCl2(melt) → Electrolysis → Mg(cathode) + Cl2↑(anode).

 

 

Сhemical reactions with Magnesium:

Mg + 2H2O(hot) = Mg(OH)2↓ + H2↑.

Mg + 2HCl(diluted) = MgCl2 + H2↑.

4Mg + 10HNO3(diluted) = 4Mg(NO3)2 + 2N2O↑ + 5H2O.

Mg + 2NH4Cl(conc., hot) = MgCl2 + 2NH3↑ + H2↑.

Mg + H2 = MgH2 (175°C, pressure, catalyst MgI2).

2Mg + O2 = 2MgO (600-650°C, combustion on air),

3Mg + N2 = Mg3N2 (780-800°C, combustion on air).

Mg + Cl2(moist) = MgCl2 (normal temp.).

Mg + H2S = MgS + H2 (500°C).

3Mg + 2NH3 = Mg3N2 + 3H2 (600-850°C).

Mg + 2N2O4 = Mg(NO3)2↓ + 2NO (150°C, vaccum, in ethyl acetate).

4Mg + SiO2 = Mg2Si + MgO (below 800°C, in the atmosphere of H2),

2Mg + SiO2 = Si + 2MgO (1000°C).